Abstract: The political environment furthermore defined what could (not) be said publicly. In the case of early modern Spain, the authorities and the Inquisition exerted an oppressive system of censorship and persecution. The threatening climate forced authors and publishers to apply strategies of camouflage and concealment. Using the example of the court physician Francisco Fernández Navarrete (1680-1742) and his unpublished manuscripts, I am examining some of the effects--omissions, ambiguities, and double layers--that pose particular challenges for historians of science who work with sources from this period.

Cite as: Stowasser, Jürgen (2025): To Read Like an Inquisitor. https://ilinx.at/posts/madrid1737.php.

⋇ ⋇ ⋇

Anyone writing a book or lecturing at a university in 18th century Spain probably had a particular audience in mind: The Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición, generally known as the Spanish Inquisition. In addition to being a menace to life and limb, the Inquisition posed also a financial threat to publishers and authors, even beyond the geographical limits of their jurisdiction, as books on the Index librorum prohibitorum would suffer from poor sales figures on the European market.For a catalog of books targeted by the different index releases between 1551 and 1815 see Martinez de Bujanda 2016.

Authors, publishers, and academic teachers developed a variety of strategies to evade the Holy Office's attention. In his guide to letter writing, the humanist Juan Vives gave advice on how to guard against "unwanted readers": The prudent thing to do, he suggests, is conceal our opinion (velare sententiam nostramVives 1989: 104, par. 79), to obfuscate the true meaning of our words (sensum obscurareVives 1989: 104, par. 79), or to convey sensitive topics in foreign languages, such as German or EnglishVives 1989: 104, par. 78. Likewise, it would be advisable to resort to enigmata and arcane language in confidential mattersVives 1989: 104, par. 78. Vives applied these strategies in his own correspondence---he switched, e.g., in a letter to Greek to insert the lines "Say this and they will declare you a heretic" (J.L. Vives to Frans van Craneveldt, 22.02.1523, Craneveldt 1928: 111; see also Noreña 1970, p. 73f.)---and he knew only to well about the potential perils: A native of Valencia and a converso (i.e., a descendant of Jewish converts to Catholicism), he lived then in Brugges as a protégé of Erasmus. Meanwhile, inquisitional prosecutors accused his family in Valencia of secretly practicing the faith of their ancestors and burning them at the stake (Noreña 1970: 20; Monter 2002: 22-24).

Some scholars hoped to get more leeway by writing in Latin than in Spanish, as expressing a dissenting opinion in a vernacular language might be deemed an attempt to incite the populace. Another strategy was to litter the text with biblical quotations and authoritative theological references while painstakingly omitting questionable literature (and, confusingly for today's readers, those were frequently the very influences the author was actually drawing on). Yet another resort was to publish anonymously. In certain circumstances, it was possible to influence the inner mechanics of the decision-making. The imprimatur required a two-step approbation: In the first instance, the censor civil, usually a scholar with relevant expertise, furnished an approval certificate (aprobación). Relying on that expert opinion, the formal permission called Licencia del Ordinario was issued.The licensing decision fell under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the inquisidor ordinario, typically the ordinarius (bishop) of the diocese where the book was printed. The licencia as the formal act of approval was usually signed by a proxy of the bishop.

To cite an example from the field of astrological meteorology, the Cartilla rusticaThe Cartilla rustica is a peculiar work. The author makes ---- almost a century after the invention of the first meteorological measuring devices---no mention of meteorological instruments; instead he cites numerous astrology-based weather rules and the reading of signs in the skies like the color of clouds or particular features of a rainbow. The most striking feature, however, is an extensive catalog of weather predictions by animal behavior, for instance, how different species of birds, cows, donkeys, mules, dogs, insects, etc., each one in their own specific way, are presaging rain (Torres Villarroel 1727: 9f) by Torres Villarroel (1727), professor of mathematics at the University of Salamanca, was approved by Francisco Arias Carrillo, professor of theology and mathematics. Both knew each other, as archival evidence shows, and Torres Villarroel returned the favor by exuberantly praising his censor in the preface of his next publication.«..Don Francisco Arias Carrillo, ingenio el mas glosioso, y el alma mas feliz, que oy tiene la racionalidad Española [...]» (Torres Villarroel 1728: [ii]) Whether or not it was indeed an approval by courtesy, Arias Carrillo's assessment uses a deliberate and strategic wording in favor of Torres VillarroelSee also Durán López 2021: 113 on the approval.: «[...] en este papel tratada la ciencia natural, con un genero de solidéz, que no se aprende en las Escuelas, la Philosophia pura, y libre del confuso horror de las opiniones, y el conocimiento de la naturaleza no intricado en la espesura de la altercacion.»Aprobación de Don Francisco Arias Carrillo, Professor de Theologia, y Mathematicas, in: Torres Villarroel 1727, front matter (...this booklet treats natural science in a sound way that is not taught in schools, it is genuine philosophy free from the confused horror of [diverging] opinions and demonstrating a knowledge of nature that is not entangled in the thicket of [academic] rows.)

The Santo Oficio, however, worked by unpredictable rules: The main targets and the intensity of surveillance changed frequently and due to rampant corruption(Lera García 1988), the tribunals became sometimes a tool for personal agenda.It was no accident that Juan Vives used the name of the capricious goddess "Fortuna" to refer in code to the Inquisition (Noreña 1970: 73f). Not even the approval of civil and religious censors proved to be a reliable safeguard: Authors and books were still at the whim of the Holy Office, as it happened to Torres Villarroel in 1743 when the inquisitors did prosecute him for his 1730 book La vida natural y catholica notwithstanding that it was printed with all the required permits.See the introduction to Torres Villarroel 2005 and the biographical entry in https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/42678-diego-de-torres-villarroel. While the Inquisition posed a continuous threat to potentially anyone, some were more at risk than others. In the early 18th century, physicians became a major target, in part because a new wave of antisemitism put the many conversos among them at the center of attention (de Lera García 1989: 164), in part because certain medical practices and teachings were suspected to be hereticalSee the case studies in Sarrión Mora 2006; astrology (there is a potential overlap with the by then "meteorology" was deemed as suspicious and sometimes as sacrilegious, see Sarrión Mora 2006: 79-113 While the list of victims includes renowned academics such as Diego Mateo Zapata (depicted in chains in Goya's gouache Zapata tu gloria será eternaMuseo del Prado: https://www.museodelprado.es/coleccion/obra-de-arte/zapata-tu-gloria-sera-eterna/096968fc-60c6-431f-b55c-25cee9c3fa8a. For the legal sources related to the case against Zapata see Sarrión Mora 2006: 153-177), the tribunals did not confine their activities to universities and the publishing sector. As a study of a persecution campaign in Fernández Navarrete’s home state of Granada shows, the inquisitors targeted general practitioners in rural communities as well (de Lera García 1989: 164). This is the environment in which the authors of the period had to operate. And, I think, we have to take that environment in account when we are working with source material, especially if we study texts with some kind of public exposure (printed books, letters, university lectures).

Those texts can pose a challenge to the reader if, for instance, the authors took precautionary measures and used narrative strategies to hide, omit, or disguise perilous topics. The elusive nature of these texts makes them sometimes difficult to deal with because their ambiguities, allusions, and hidden meanings are easy to miss or misread. For historians of science, this means looking for clues and traces, scrutinizing text passages for possible clues to an alternative reading, or in other words, to read those texts with the suspicious mind of a calificador, the assessor tasked with examining books for theologically objectionable content.

This approach is not based on a new insight: Carlo Ginzburg (who worked extensively with inquisitional sources from Italian archives) has pointed to certain similarities between an inquisitor's scrutiny and the mode historians and anthropologists examine their sources (Ginzburg 2012: 224; Ginzburg 1992: 156-164). The question we must bear in mind is the following: What was it like, to write, publish, or lecture at the continuous risk of being accused of capital offenses.In a scholarly context, this is related to the question of what Foucault called parrhesia "as a specific modality of truth-telling" (Foucault 2011), i.e., the question if and how philosophical/scientific truth can be spoken. On this topic and with respect to the conversos in early modern Spain, see Schreiber 2017

The Holy Office was an omnipresent and pervasive entity, permeating the social fabric. The traces of its looming presence can be found in all kinds of historical sources, but it was perhaps the universities where the Inquisition had the most persistent impact. I will take the University of Granada as an example where Francisco Fernández Navarrete spent the better part of his academic career at the University of Granada, first as a student of medicine and then as a faculty member taking the regular career path of holding first the less prestigious (and poorly paid) professorship called cátedra de Vísperas until being appointed to the prime Chair of Medicine (cátedra de Prima).Gil Albarracín (RAH): «Fernández Navarrete»

For any research on universities in early modern Spain, there are two routine search queries to start with: the libro de claustros (faculty register) and the expediente de limpieza de sangre ("dossier on the purity of blood"). The latter probably best encapsulates the climate of suspicion and threat that prevailing in the intellectual landscape. The proof of "blood purity" was an official procedure to establish that someone's ancestry was "free from all bad races such as Moors, Jews, and Moriscos" and did also not include anyone prosecuted by the Inquisition.Expediente de limpieza de sangre de Francisco José Fernández Navarrete, fol. 6 (ES AUG I 175 PRINCIPAL CAJA 01473/005) The certificate was required for all kinds of governmental and ecclestial appointments, and it was also the prerequisite for the license to practice medicine---which is why it came as no surprise that Fernández Navarrete's personnel file in the university archive did contain his Expediente de limpieza de sangre. I also looked into the catalogs of claustros which are numerous sources of information on faculty members, remunerations, lecture topics and decision-making regarding all aspects of teaching. The two volumes pertaining to the time period of Fernández Navarrete's tenure are digitized, a total of 1.000 pages written by many different hands.Universidad de Granada, Archivo Universitario: a) Libro de Actas del Claustro Universitario, Libro 10 (1696/09/01 -1715/11/09). Reference code: ES AUG A 104 PRINCIPAL LIBRO AC 00009. https://archero.ugr.es/portalArchivo/registro?id=00158117 & b) Libro de Actas del Claustro Universitario, Libro 11 (1716/11/12 -1743/11/10). Reference code: ES AUG A 104 PRINCIPAL LIBRO AC 00010. https://archero.ugr.es/portalArchivo/registro?id=00158118However, just by leafing randomly through the register, I came immediately across a lenghty passage regarding the Inquisition, the limpieza de sangre policy, and the medical department.

In my next archival inquiry, I consulted Fernández Navarrete's manuscripts in the archive of the Real Academia Nacional de Medicina. Only two of four volumes are digitized, which left me with some open questions that might or might not be answered by getting access to the complete record. Apart from that, the papers are in good condition except for some minor issues.The binding was not done in continous chronological order, the dating of the 1703 volume appears to be incorrect, and there is some water damage (problems that are usually easier to approach with the physical manuscript at hand). One fascicle was provided with an incomplete index by a different hand, likely Tomás Francisco Monleón y Ramiro who is named in the metadata of the papers and was an academy member at the time of Fernández Navarrete's death (https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/31105-tomas-francisco-monleon-y-ramiro).

Fernández Navarrete's manuscripts provide valuable insights into theory and practice of Spanish medicine in the early decades of the 18th century. He was not only a medical scholar, but also a practitioner, presumably for wealthy and influential patients; he also was part of the king's medical advisory staff. The medical content of the manuscripts covers excerpts, case histories, and prescriptions (that is, formulations that the pharmacist should prepare accordingly). I have focused on the sections related to meteorology in a broader sense (given that today's definition of the field cannot be equated to the categories back then) and paid special attention to his notes on instrumental measurements, possible clues about main influences, and possible mismatches between his published writings and the manuscripts.

Although in his books and in the Ephemerides barometrico-medicas matritenses he quoted only Catholic authors, his excerpts indicate a wide range of readings (and thus intellectual influences), including Francis Bacon, Robert FluddFernández Navarrete 1703: 216, 219r; Fludd was one of the purged authors Fernández Navarrete used to read. Based on the literature I have consulted, there is no indication that Fernández Navarrete was granted or did even as for the church's dispensation to read purged texts., Thomas SydenhamThomas Sydenham (Observationes Medicae, 1676) was a trailblazer in a more empirical approach to medicine and his work clearly influenced the Madrid project. Fernández Navarrete does not mention Sydenham in the Ephemerides, but the manuscripts show that he was familiar with the work of his English colleague. He refers to Sydenham, for instance, in a couple of notes headed Pro Arte Observatoria, Fernández Navarrete 1745: [232r]., Sephardic authors like Maimonides, and Descartes who had become the epitome of the Spanish church's campaign against the advocates of the early Enlightenment, the so-called novatores.The term was introduced by the Minim theologian Francisco Palanco in his Dialogus physico-theologicus contra philosophiae novatores and meant as an insult to denounce the "new ways of thinking", namely Descartes and Gassendi (Palanco 1714). The dismissive "novatores" turned later on into the denominator for the Spanish (early) Enlightenment; in the medical context novatores became the name for a movement of physicians aiming to reform Spanish medicine by introducing a more "scientific" approach (Gómez de Enterría 2015: 366-375). The Fernández Navarrete papers also include what appears to be the preliminary work for a never to be published history of Spanish medical science («Autores Medicos Españoles, sus Patrias, Vidas, Costumbres y Libros» / Spanish Medical Authors, their Homelands, Lives, Customs and Books).Fernández Navarrete had compiled a few carefully drafted index cards, one for each name. He did not select the canonical authors one might expect, but rather included highly ”problematic” authors he looked upon favorably. There are, for instance, Oliva Sabuco de Nantes Barrera (Fernández Navarrete 1745: 210r), one of very few female medical authors whose books had been put on the index (Martinez de Bujanda 2016: 120 and 969), the physician and botanist Andrés Laguna (Fernández Navarrete 1745: 209) whose editions of Dioscorides had been purged three times (Martinez de Bujanda 2016: 129), and the ”Cartesian” humanist Gómez Pereira (by some reseachers believed to be plagiarized by Descartes).Fernández Navarrete 1745: 213r

So, what are the key takeaways from Fernández Navarrete's reads? The literature he did excerpt, cite, or mention en passant covers a wide spectrum of subjects and authors. The excerpts also suggest an ideological proximity to the novatores which is in line with the general direction of the Real Academia Médica Matritense and the Ephemerides project (see below). There are two particular conclusions that I would like to single out. The first concerns the mismatch between the authors read and the authors cited in his publications. Obviously he did conceal some of the literature from which he was drawing ideas. In the Ephemerides Barometrico-Medicas Matritenses, for instance, he refers to the macrocosm/microcosm-hypothesis, the idea that the human body---belonging to the microcosm---is correspondent to the greater universe---the macrocosm---with specific parts of the body mirroring their counterparts in the macrocosm: «[...] la mutua dependencia, y consonancia entre la Atmosphera, sus condiciones, y mudanzas, y el estado, y alteraciones de nuestro cuerpo, como mundo menor, cuya conservacion en el todo depende del mayor.»Ephemerides, [4] (The mutual dependence and correspondence between the atmosphere with its conditions and its changes, and the state and the changes of our body as the small world the preservation of which depends entirely on the great world.) There are plenty of possible sources for this concept, ranging from Pre-Socratic philosophy (Pythagoras) to late medieval NeoplatonismSee Robertson 2019 and 16th century physicians such as Paracelsus. Fernández Navarrete's "reading list", i.e., the literature mentioned in his papers, however, suggests two likely candidates: the aforementioned Oliva Sabuco---the microcosm/macrocosm model played a crucial role her work---and Robert Fludd.See, e.g., Fludd 1631: 434f: Applicatio ad microcosmum ... applicatio ad hominem. See also Guariento 2018 on Fludd's conception of the weather glass as a model of the micro-/macrocosm. Both authors had been purged and would not have been "quotable", at least not in a favorable manner.

The second conclusion: The manuscripts are testimony to a vivid interest in meteorological instruments, and Fernández Navarrete thoroughly excerpted authoritative texts of the early period of instrumental meteorology such as the Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell'Accademia del cimento (1666),Fernández Navarrete 1703: 293 The literature he consulted, however, reflected by no means the state-of-the-art knowledge on the topic. As for why, it is hard to say for sure if the outdated reading list was just Fernández Navarrete not paying attention to the most recent literature, or a further symptom of the marginalization of Spanish science in a period marked by war, economic crisis, and censorship.There is an argument to make that Spain had only limited access to the knowledge circulation in Europe due to import restrictions or complete bans, aiming specifically at Protestant countries. English, Dutch, and German printers tried to circumvent the bans with false imprints pretending that the book was published in a Catholic city so that Spanish booksellers could apply for a license to sell (Reyes Gómez 2000: 1,308).

(Jürgen Stowasser)

• History of Medicine
• History of Science
• Censorship
• Spain

References:

Academia Médica Matritense. n.d. Estatutos de La Academia Medica Matritense, Aprobados Por El Real y Supremo Consejo de Castilla. Madrid: Academia Médica Matritense. http://bibliotecavirtual.ranf.com/es/consulta/registro.do?id=10128.

Acosta, José. 2008. Historia Natural y Moral de Las Indias. Edited by Fermín Pino-Díaz and Fermín Pino Díaz. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.

Alberola Romá, Armando. 2015. “Tiempo, Clima y Enfermedad En La Prensa Española de La Segunda Mitad Del Siglo XVIII. Diarios Meteorológicos y Crónicas de Desastres En El Memorial Literario.” El Argonauta Español 12. https://doi.org/10.4000/argonauta.2142.

Alemán, Mateo, and German Bleiberg. 1977. “El «Informe Secreto» de Mateo Alemán Sobre El Trabajo Forzoso En Las Minas de Almadén.” Estudios de Historia Social: Revista Del Instituto de Estudios de Sanidad y Seguridad Social, no. 2–3: 357–443. https://archive.org/details/MATEO_ALEMAN_INFORME_SECRETO.

Alencé, Joachim d’. 1688. Abhandlung Dreyer so Nothwendig-Als Nützlichen Instrumenten, Nemlich Deß Barometri, Thermometri Und Notiometri Oder Hygrometri. Der Lufft Geringste Veränderungen in Schwere Und Leichte, in Wärme Und Kälte, in Feuchte Und Truckne, Auff Das Genaueste Zu Beobachten. Translated by Johann Crato Hiegel. Mainz: Ludwig Bourgeat. https://onb.digital/result/10935F8E.

Anduaga Egaña, Aitor. 2012. Meteorología, Ideología y Sociedad En La España Contemporánea. Madrid: CSIC, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.

Anonymous. 1737a. “Articulo IV. Ephemerides Barometrico-Medicas Matritenses, Junio, Julio, Agosto.” Diario de Los Literatos de España 1: 134–64. http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issn/2484-9790.

———. 1737b. “Articulo XVIII. Ephemerides Barometrico-Medicas Matritenses, de Los Meses de Septiembre, Octubre, Noviembre, y Diciembre Del Año 1737, Extractadas de Orden de La Real Academia Medica, Por El Doctor Don Alexandro Martinez.” Diario de Los Literatos de España 1: 360–70. http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issn/2484-9790.

———. 1737c. “Articulo XXII. Ephemerides Barometrico-Medicas Matritenses Para El Mas Puntual, y Exacto Calculo de Las Observaciones Que Han de Ilustrar La Historia Natural, y Medica de España: Extractadas de Orden de La Real Academia Medico-Matritense, Por El Doct. D. Francisco Fernandez Navarrete [...].” Diario de Los Literatos de España 1: 311–40. http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issn/2484-9790.

Aristotle. 1952. Meteorologica. Greek/English. Translated by H. D. P. Lee. Loeb Classical Library 397. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL397/1952/volume.xml.

Balaguer Perigüell, Emilio. 1982. “Continuidad y Ruptura En La Renovación Científica Valenciana.” Revista de Historia Moderna, no. 2: 251–58. https://doi.org/10.14198/RHM1982.2.09.

———. n.d. “«Piquer y Arrufat, Andrés», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/36352-andres-piquer-y-arrufat.

Ballester Añón, Rosa. n.d. “«Cervi, Giuseppe», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/11638-giuseppe-cervi.

Bel Bravo, María Antonia, and Juan Obra Sierra. 1986. “Documentos Para El Estudio de La Inquisición En Granada.” Chronica Nova. Revista de Historia Moderna de La Universidad de Granada 15 (315-328). http://hdl.handle.net/10481/26014.

Benedek, Thomas G. 2015. Rheumatism: Its History from Paleo-Pathology to the Advent of Experimental Science. New York: Nova Biomedical.

Betancourt, Agustín de. 1783. “Memorias de Las Reales Minas de Almadén, 1783, i-III.” Manuscript. Madrid: Biblioteca Nacional de España (MSS/10427-10429). http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000042440.

Bustamante Oleart, Carlos. 2020. “La Historia Del Viento En Las Ciudades = the History of the Wind in the Cities.” Cuadernos de Investigación Urbanística, no. 132: 1. https://doi.org/10.20868/ciur.2020.132.4510.

Camuffo, Dario, and Chiara Bertolin. 2011. “The Earliest Temperature Observations in the World: The Medici Network (1654–1670).” Climatic Change 111 (2): 335–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0142-5.

Carreras Panchón, Antonio. n.d. “«Hernández Morejón, Antonio.», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/21458-antonio-hernandez-morejon.

Chinchilla, Anastasio. 1841. Anales Históricos de La Medicina En General, y Biográfico-Bibliográficos de La Española En Particular. Vol. 5. Valencia: Lopez y Compañia. https://archive.org/details/b2933858x_0005/.

Colón, Cristóbal. 2003. Textos y Documentos Completos. Edited by Consuelo Varela and Juan Gil. 3. reimpr. de la 2. ed. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.

Comisión Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA. 2012. Servicio MeteorológicoNacional:135 Años de Historia En México. México, D.F.: Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. https://www.gob.mx/conagua.

De Paredes Cencillo, Carlos. 2020. “Andrés Piquer y Arrufat (1711-1772). Un Médico Ilustrado Entre La Universidad de Valencia y La Corte.” PhD thesis, Valencia: Universitat de València.

Díez de Revenga Torres, Pilar. 2010. “Una Actividad Poco Conocida de Mateo Alemán: La Visita a Las Minas de Almadén.” In De Moneda Nunca Usada. Estudios Filológicos Dedicados a José Ma. Enguita Utrilla, edited by Rosa María Castañer Martín and Vicente Lagüéns Gracia, 219–25. Zaragoza: Instituto Fernando el Católico. https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/95/_ebook.pdf.

Domínguez-Castro, F., R. M. Trigo, and J. M. Vaquero. 2013. “The First Meteorological Measurements in the Iberian Peninsula: Evaluating the Storm of November 1724.” Climatic Change 118 (2): 443–55.

Domínguez‐Castro, F., J. M. Vaquero, F. S. Rodrigo, A. M. M. Farrona, M. C. Gallego, R. García‐Herrera, M. Barriendos, and A. Sanchez‐Lorenzo. 2014. “Early Spanish Meteorological Records (1780–1850).” International Journal of Climatology 34 (3): 593–603. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3709.

Durán López, Fernando. 2021. “De Las Seriedades de Urania a Las Zumbas de Talía. Astrología Frente a Entretenimiento En La Censura de Los Almanaques de La Primera Mitad Del XVIII.” Cuadernos de Estudios Del Siglo XVIII, no. 6: 1–202. https://doi.org/10.17811/cesxviii.6.2021.1-202.

Feijoo, Benito Jerónimo OSB. 1769. Teatro Critico Universal, ó Discursos Varios En Todo Género de Materias, Para Desengaño de Errores Comunes. Vol. II. Madrid: Joaquín Ibarra. https://bibliotecadigital.museodelprado.es/pradobib/es/bib/10315.do.

Fernández Navarrete, Francisco. 1719. El Nereo Director, y Juez Medicinal, Entre Las Verdaderas, y Supuestas Virtudes, y Vso Legitimo Del Agua Pura, Elemental, Natural, En Sanos, y Enfermos, Como Bebida, y Como Medicina. Granada: Imprenta de Nicolàs Prieto. https://digibug.ugr.es/flexpaper/handle/10481/8759/a-038-308%20(1).pdf.

———. 1738. “Articulo VIII. Carta Del Doctor Don Francisco Fernandez Navarrete, Medico de Camara de s.m. A Los Autores Del Diario.” Diario de Los Literatos de España 2: 167–81. http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issn/2484-9790.

———. 1745. “Tomo 2médico de Miscelánea Médica.” Real Academia Nacional de Medicina, Sign. M-10-07-M-02. Manuscript. http://bibliotecavirtual.ranm.es/ranm/es/consulta/registro.do?id=1241.

Fernández Navarrete, Francisco. 1997. Cielo y Suelo Granadino. Edited by Antonio Gil Albarracín. Almeria: Griselda Bonet Girabet.

Fludd, Robert. 1631. Integrvm Morborvm Mysterivm: Sive Medicinae Catholicae Tomi Primi Tractatvs Secundus, in Sectiones Distributus Duas; Quorvm Prior Generalem Morborum Naturam [...] Describit. 1,2 vols. Frankfurt: Fitzer. https://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/details:bsb11394884.

Foucault, Michel. 2011. The Courage of Truth. Edited by Mr Graham Burchell and Arnold I. Davidson. Michel Foucault, Lectures at the Collège de France. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Fuster, Joseph-Jean-Nicolas. 1840. Des Maladies de La France Dans Leurs Rapports Avec Les Saisons, Ou Histoire Médicale Et Météorologique de La France. Paris: Dufart.

García de Cortázar Nebreda, Margarita. 2023. “La Construcción de La Física Moderna En La Sociedad Española Del Siglo XVIII: Obras, Autores y Públicos.” PhD thesis, Valencia: Universitat de València.

García Gómez, Montserrat, José Diego Caballero Klink, Paolo Boffetta, Santiago Español, Gerd Sällsten, and Javier Gómez Quintana. 2007. “Exposure to Mercury in the Mine of Almadén.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 64 (6): 389–95. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2006.030940.

García Hourcade, Juan Luis. 2002. La Meteorologı́a En La España Ilustrada y La Obra de Vicente Alcalá Galiano. Edited by Asociación cultural Biblioteca de Ciencia y Artillerı́a. (Biblioteca de Ciencia y Artillerı́a). Segovia : Asociación cultural Biblioteca de Ciencia y Artillerı́a. http://bibliotecavirtual.ranm.es/ranm/es/consulta/registro.do?id=74707.

García-Pulido, Luis José. 2016. “La Representación Gráfica Del Territorio Granadino En Los Mapas Topográficos Del Siglo XIX.” EGA. Revista de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica 21 (27): 242. https://doi.org/10.4995/ega.2016.4744.

Gil Albarracín, Antonio. 2018. “«Francisco Fernández Navarrete», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/23422/francisco-fernandez-navarrete.

———. n.d. “«Fernández Navarrete, Francisco», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/16733-francisco-fernandez-navarrete.

Gil Bautista, Rafael. 2009. “Medicina y Minería En El Almadén Del Siglo XVIII: Joseph Parés y Franqués (Mataró, 1720-Almadén, 1798).” Revista de Historia Moderna, no. 27: 333–61. https://doi.org/10.14198/rhm2009.27.14.

Ginzburg, Carlo. 1992. Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method. Translated by Anne Tedeschi and John Tedeschi. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

———. 2012. Threads and Traces: True, False, Fictive. Translated by Anne Tedeschi and John Tedeschi. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Gómez de Enterría, Josefa. 2015. “El Vocabulario de La Medicina En El Español Del Siglo XVIII.” In Actas Del IX Congreso Internacional de Historia de La Lengua: Cádiz, 2012, edited by García Martín José and Teresa Bastardín Candón, 361–92. Frankfurt a. M., Madrid: Vervuert Verlagsgesellschaft. https://doi.org/10.31819/9783964566492-017.

Gómez Ortiz, A., B. Milheiro Santos, and D. Serrano Giné. 2013. “Nieves, Hielos y Aguas En Los Paisajes de Sierra Nevada : El Interés de La Información Gráfica de Los Libros de Época.” Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica 34: 101–18. https://doi.org/10.18172/cig.1209.

González Bueno, Antonio. n.d. “«Hortega y Hernández, José», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/22791-jose-hortega-y-hernandez.

González de Posada, Francisco. 2019. “Contextualized History of the Real Academia Médica Matritense.” ANALES RANM 136 (02): 179–88. https://doi.org/10.32440/ar.2019.136.02.rev12.

Guariento, Luca. 2018. “From the Divine Monochord to the Weather-Glass: Changing Perspectives in Robert Fludd’s Philosophy.” In Evidence in the Age of the New Sciences, 151–76. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91869-3_7.

Guijarro Mora, Víctor. 2005. “El Barómetro y Los Proyectos Meteorológicos de La Ilustración: El Caso Español.” ENDOXA, no. 19: 159–90. https://doi.org/10.5944/endoxa.19.2005.5109.

Hernández Morejón, Antonio. 1850. Historia Bibliográfica de La Medicina Española, Tomo VI. Madrid: Viuda de Jordán e Hijos.

———. 1852. Historia Bibliográfica de La Medicina Española, Tomo VII. Madrid: Viuda de Jordán e Hijos.

Hipócrates. 1757. Las Obras de Hippocrates Más Selectas, Tomo Primero. Edited and translated by Andrés Piquer. Madrid: Joachin Ibarra. https://bvpb.mcu.es/es/consulta/registro.do?id=577201.

Jones Corredera, Edward. 2019. “The Rediscovery of the Spanish Republic of Letters.” History of European Ideas 45 (7): 953–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/01916599.2019.1632730.

Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchor de. 2024. “Obras Completas de Jovellanos (Versión Digital de La Edición Crítica 1928-1995).” Museo Casa Natal de Jovellanos; Instituto Feijoo de Estudios del Siglo XVIII. 2024. https://www.unioviedo.es/jovellanos/.

Jurin, James (Jacobus). 1723. “Invitatio Ad Observationes Meteorologicas Communi Consilio Instituendas.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 32 (379): 422–27. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1722.0082.

León Sanz, Pilar, and Dolores Barettino Coloma. 2007. Vicente Ferrer Gorraiz Beaumont y Montesa| (1718 - 1792), Un Polemista Navarro de La Ilustracion. Temas de Historia de La Medicina 6. Pamplona: Gobierno de Navarra, Departemento de Salud.

Lera García, Rafael. 1988. “Venta de Oficios En La Inquisición de Granada (1629-1644).” Hispania: Revista Española de Historia 48 (170): 909–62.

Lera García, Rafael de. 1989. “Gran Ofensiva Antijudía de La Inquisición de Granada 1715-27.” Chronica Nova. Revista de Historia Moderna de La Universidad de Granada 17 (147-170). https://revistaseug.ugr.es/index.php/cnova/article/view/2831.

Llorente, Juan Antonio. 1836. Historia Crítica de La Inquisición de España; Obra Original Conforme á Lo Que Resulta de Los Archivos Del Consejo de La Suprema,y de Los Tribunales de Provincia. Tomo VIII. Barcelona: Oliva. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_2ZsuAAAAYAAJ/.

López Andújar, G., and J. L. Valverde. 1986. “El Manuscrito de La ‘Historia Natural’ Del Dr. Francisco Fernández Navarrete (s: XVIII).” Ars Pharmaceutica 27 (3): 263–69. https://revistaseug.ugr.es/index.php/ars/article/view/25518.

López, Pedro J. Tárraga, Juan Solera Albero, and Enrique Arjona Laborda. 2020. “De Las Reales Academias de Medicina Del Siglo XVIII a La Academia de Medicina de Castilla La Mancha Del Siglo XXI.” Journal of Negative and No Positive Results 5: 141–55. https://doi.org/10.19230/jonnpr.3512.

López Terrada, María Luz, José Luis Fresquet Febrer, and Carla Pilar Aguirre Marco. 2008. Hernández Morejón, Anastasio Chinchilla y La Historia de La Medicina Española. Vol. LVII. Cuadernos Valencianos de Historia de La Medicina y de La Ciencia. Valencia: Instituto de Historia de la Medicina y de la Ciencia, Universitat de València. http://hdl.handle.net/10261/83439.

Mariscal y García de Rello, Nicasio. 1036. “Historia General de La Academia Nacional de Medicina. Discurso de Nicasio Mariscal y García, [Leído] El Sábado 15 de Diciembre de 1934.” In Academia Nacional de Medicina 1734-1934: Publicaciones Conmemorativas de II Centenario de Su Fundación. Conferencias, 377–444. Madrid: J. Cosano. http://bibliotecavirtual.ranm.es/ranm/es/consulta/registro.do?id=100871.

Martinez de Bujanda, Jesús. 2016. El Índice de Libros Prohibidos y Expurgados de La Inquisición Española (1551-1819). Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos.

———. 2019. Censura de La Inquisición y de La Iglesia En España (1520-1966). Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos.

Martínez Martínez, Manuel. 2007. “Los Forzados de Marina. El Caso de Los Gitanos (1700-1765).” Tesis doctoral, Almería: Universidad de Almería. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/tesis?codigo=218806.

Martínez y Montes, Vicente. 1852. Topografía Médica de La Ciudad de Málaga. Málaga: Círculo Literario.

McConnell, Anita. 2005. “Origins of the Marine Barometer.” Annals of Science 62 (1): 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/0003379031000095767.

Medina, Pedro de. 1545. Arte de Nauegar En Que Se Contienen Todas Las Reglas, Declaraciones, Secretos y Auisos q[ue] a La Buena Nauegacio[n] Son Necessarios, y Se Deue[n] Saber. Valladolid: Francisco Fernández de Córdoba. http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000050728.

Menéndez Navarro, Alfredo. 1991. “Un Testimonio Médico Sobre Las Condiciones de Vida de Trabajo de Los Mineros de Almadén En La Segunda Mitad Del Siglo XVIII.” Acta Hispanica Ad Medicinae Scientiarumque Historiam Illustrandam 11: 147–96. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1311812.

Minniti, Francesco. 1690. Armonia Astro-Medico-Anatomica, o Sia Colleganza Degl’astri Con Il Microcosmo, e Di Questo Con i Vegetabili : Con Un’appendice Della Nautica [...]. Venice: Giovanni Francesco Valvasense.

Monter, Edward William. 2002. Frontiers of Heresy: The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History. Cambridge, [U.K.]: Cambridge University Press.

Morales Segura, Cristina. 2019. Galeotes de Mercurio. El Caso de Mateo Alemán: La Interacción Entre El Derecho y La Literatura En El Informe de La Mina de Mercurio de Almadén y El Guzmán de Alfarache. Historia Del Derecho. Madrid: Universidad Carlos III de Madrid.

Nomdedeu Rull, Antoni, and Sandra Iglesia Martín. 2013. “Diccionario Histórico Del Español Moderno de Aparatos de Física Experimental: Documentación de Los Términos Del Siglo XVIII.” Asclepio 65 (2). https://doi.org/10.3989/asclepio.2013.20.

Noreña, Carlos. 1970. Juan Luis Vives. International Archives of the History of Ideas v.34. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Olcina Cantos, Jorge. 2014. “Enseñanzas Climáticas En La Obra de Kant.” Anales de Geografía de La Universidad Complutense 34 (2). https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_aguc.2014.v34.n2.47075.

Palanco, Francisco (O. Minim.). 1714. Dialogus Physico-Theologicus Contra Philosophiae Novatores Sive Thomista Contra Atomistas. Madrid: ex typis Blasij de Villa-Nueva. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5325859421.

Panizo Santos, Ignacio. 2018. “Fuentes Para El Estudio de La Última Etapa de La Inquisición Española.” Ayer. Revista de Historia Contemporánea 109 (1): 199–234. https://doi.org/10.55509/ayer/109-2018-08.

Pérez, Nuria Valverde. 2007. Actos de Precisión: Instrumentos Científicos, Opinión Pública y Economía Moral En La Ilustración Española. Estudios Sobre La Ciencia 47. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.

Phillips, Laura. 2021. “Medical Astrology: Science, Art, and Influence in Early-Modern Europe, Online Exhibition.” https://onlineexhibits.library.yale.edu/s/medicalastrology; Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library; Medical Historical Library at Yale University.

Pinto Crespo, Virgilio, Rafael Gili Ruiz, and Fernando Velasco Medina. 2015. “Historia Del Saneamiento de Madrid. Proyecto de Investigación.” https://www.madrid.org/bvirtual/BVCM019290.pdf; Centro de Documentación para la Historia de Madrid, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.

Piquer, Andrés. 1745. Fisica Moderna Racional, y Experimental. Valencia: Pasqual Garcia. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/sbkkwtnx.

———. 1747. Logica Moderna, o Arte de Hallar La Verdad y Perficionar La Razon. Valencia: Joseph García. http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000083234.

Real Academia Medico-Matritense. 1737. Ephemerides Barométrico-Médicas Matritenses. Madrid: Imprenta Real. https://bvpb.mcu.es/es/consulta/registro.do?id=452762.

Real Academia Nacional de Medicina de España (RANME), ed. 2025. X Aniversario de La Proclamación de s. M. El Rey Felipe VI. Aportación de Las Reales Academias de Medicina de España. Madrid: RANME. https://ranm.es/wp-content/content/publicaciones/aportaciones-rraa/Aportacion-de-las-Reales-Academias-de-Medicina-de-Espana/.

Reyes Gómez, Fermín. 2000. El Libro En España y América: Legislación y Censura (Siglos XV - XVIII). 1–2 vols. Madrid: Arco/Libros.

Robertson, Kellie. 2019. “Scaling Nature: Scaling Nature: Microcosm and Macrocosm in Later Medieval Thought.” Edited by Sarah Kay and Nicolette Zeeman. Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 49 (3): 609–31. https://doi.org/10.1215/10829636-7724697.

Rodrigo Sánchez, Fernando. 2016. “Afecciones Metereológicas: Medicina y Meteorología En Andalucía, 1754-1852.” OHM: Obradoiro de Historia Moderna, no. 25. https://doi.org/10.15304/ohm.25.2944.

———. 2019. “The Climate of Granada (Southern Spain) During the First Third of the 18th Century (1706–1730) According to Documentary Sources.” Climate of the Past 15 (2): 647–59. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-15-647-2019.

———. 2020. “Recovering Climate Data from Documentary Sources: A Study on the Climate in the South of Spain from 1792 to 1808.” Atmosphere 11 (3): 296. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11030296.

Rodríguez de la Torre, Fernando. n.d.a. “«Martínez Argandoña, Alejandro», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/27939-alejandro-martinez-argandona.

———. n.d.b. “«Monleón y Ramiro, Tomás Francisco.», En Real Academia de La Historia, Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico.” https://historia-hispanica.rah.es/biografias/31105-tomas-francisco-monleon-y-ramiro.

Ruiz Veintemilla, Jesús M. 1977. “El «Diario de Los Literatos de España» y Sus Modelos.” Cuadernos de Estudios Del Siglo XVIII, no. 4–5 (November): 71–86. https://doi.org/10.17811/cesxviii.4-5.1977.71-86.

Rusnock, Andrea Alice. 2002. Vital Accounts. Quantifying Health and Population in Eighteenth-Century England and France. Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sánchez Belén, Juan, and Benito Rodríguez Arbeteta. 2023. “La Corte En Devoción. Rituales de Santidad En El Madrid de Felipe v.” Boletín de La Real Academia de La Historia 220: 493–530. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=9749712.

Sarrión Mora, Adelina. 2006. Médicos e Inquisición En El Siglo XVII. Cuenca: Ediciones de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.

Schreiber, Markus. 2017. “Conversos y Librepensamiento. A La Búsqueda de Algunas Huellas (Ss. XVI y XVII).” Sefarad 77 (2): 375–403. https://doi.org/10.3989/sefarad.017.013.

Sigüenza y Góngora, Carlos. 1984. Libra Astronómica y Filosófica. Edited by José Gaos and Bernabé Navarro. Segunda edición. México: Centro de Estudios Filosóficos, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.

Sotos, Andres Alphonso de. 1753. Ephemeride Medico-Mathematica, Diario Medicinal, y Pronostico Para Todos Climas [..] En Qualquiera de Los Dias En El Año de 1754. Salamanca: Antonio Joseph Villargordo y Alcaràz. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009265809.

Stack, Thomas. 1738a. “Account of the Institution of the Royal Academy of Madrid Being the Introduction to the Ephemirides Barometrico Medicas Matritenses by Francisco Fernandex Navarette.” The Royal Society Archives, RBO/21/21. Manuscript. https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/items/rbo_21_21/account-of-the-institution-of-the-royal-academy-of-madrid-being-the-introduction-to-the-ephemirides-barometrico-medicas-matritenses-by-francisco-fernandex-navarette.

———. 1738b. “Paper, ’Introduction to the Ephemerides of the Royal Academy of Madrid Containing Some Account of the Institution of That Academy’ by Francis Fernandez Navarette.” The Royal Society Archives, CLP/22ii/79. Manuscript. https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/items/clp_22ii_79/paper-introduction-to-the-ephemerides-of-the-royal-academy-of-madrid-containing-some-account-of-the-institution-of-that-academy-by-francis-fernandez-navarette.

Torres Villarroel, Diego de. 1727. Cartilla Rustica, Phisica Visible, y Astrologia Innegable: Lecciones de Agricultura y Juizios Pastoriles, Para Hazer Docto Al Rustico. Madrid: Antonio Marin. https://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000082790.

———. 1728. Recetas de Torres, Añadidas a Los Remedios de Cualquier Fortuna [..]. Madrid: Antonio Marín. http://hdl.handle.net/10366/125283.

Valverde, Nuria. 2010. “Destreza Demostrada y Conocimiento Distorsionado: Lo Amateur y La Precisión En La España de Finales Del Siglo XVIII.” Asclepio 62 (2): 483–516. https://doi.org/10.3989/asclepio.2010.v62.i2.476.

Vaquero Martinez, Jose Manuel. 2023. “Las Observaciones Meteorológicas de Jovellanos En El Castillo de Bellver.” Revista Española de Física 37 (3): 22–27.

Velasco Moreno, Eva. 2000. “Nuevas Instituciones de Sociabilidad: Las Academias de Finales Del Siglo XVII y Comienzos Del XVIII.” Cuadernos Dieciochistas 1: 39–55. https://revistas.usal.es/dos/index.php/1576-7914/article/view/3801.

Vives, Juan Luis. 1989. De Conscribendis Epistolis: Critical Edition with Introduction, Translation and Annotation. Edited by Charles Fantazzi and Constantijn Matheeussen. Selected Works of Juan Luis Vives 3. Leiden: Brill.